The Glass Ceiling: Definition, History, Effects, and Examples

The “glass ceiling” is a metaphor for the invisible barriers that prevent certain groups—most commonly women and racial minorities—from advancing into senior management and executive roles. These barriers are usually unwritten and arise from cultural norms, implicit bias, and structural practices that limit career progression despite qualifications.

Key takeaways

• The glass ceiling describes social and organizational barriers that block promotions to top leadership roles.
• The term was coined by Marilyn Loden in 1978 and popularized in the 1980s.
• It has expanded to include obstacles faced by racial and other minority groups.
• Diverse leadership teams tend to make better decisions, providing a business case for removing these barriers.
• Progress has been made but inequality persists in many industries and countries.

Definition and scope

The glass ceiling refers to subtle, often invisible limits on who can rise to the highest levels of an organization. Rather than explicit policies, these limits come from stereotypes, biased evaluation and promotion practices, exclusion from influential networks, and organizational cultures that favor dominant groups. While originally used to describe women’s barriers in corporate America, the concept now commonly includes racial and ethnic minorities and other marginalized groups.

Origins and history

Marilyn Loden coined the phrase during a 1978 panel at a Women’s Exposition. The term gained wider circulation after coverage in the 1980s. In 1991 the U.S. Department of Labor established the Glass Ceiling Commission to identify barriers and recommend policies to increase representation of women and minorities in managerial and executive roles. The commission found that qualified candidates were often denied opportunities because of stereotypes and exclusionary practices.

How widespread is it?

Statistics demonstrate persistent gaps:
* In 2023, women made up about 46.9% of the U.S. labor force but held roughly 30.6% of chief executive roles (Bureau of Labor Statistics).
* The number of female CEOs among Fortune 500 companies has increased slowly; for example, there were 52 female CEOs in 2024.
These numbers vary by country, industry and level of seniority, reflecting cultural and institutional differences.

Why it matters

Beyond fairness and legal compliance, reducing glass-ceiling effects benefits organizations:
* Diverse leadership teams outperform homogeneous teams in decision quality and innovation.
* Inclusive promotion practices help retain talent and improve organizational reputation.
Addressing the causes—bias in hiring and promotion, unequal access to mentoring and sponsorship, and noninclusive cultures—can improve both equity and performance.

The glass cliff

The “glass cliff” is a related phenomenon in which women (and sometimes minorities) are more likely to be appointed to leadership roles during periods of crisis or high risk, when the chance of failure is elevated. Coined by Michelle K. Ryan and Alexander Haslam in 2004, the concept highlights that even when underrepresented people break through the glass ceiling, they may be placed in precarious positions that set them up to fail.

Notable examples

Instances of breaking historic barriers illustrate both progress and the remaining challenge:
* Kamala Harris became the first woman, the first Black person, and the first South Asian person to serve as U.S. vice president.
Janet Yellen was the first woman to chair the Federal Reserve and later became the first woman to serve as U.S. Treasury secretary.
Political campaigns and executive appointments—such as major-party presidential nominees and corporate CEO hires—have highlighted both breakthroughs and the slow pace of change.

Common questions

What does “break the glass ceiling” mean?
– Overcoming the invisible barriers that prevent advancement and removing those barriers for others.

Is the glass ceiling still real?
– Yes. While some progress has occurred, many industries and leadership levels remain dominated by historically privileged groups.

How does the glass cliff differ from the glass ceiling?
– The glass ceiling prevents access to top roles; the glass cliff places those who do achieve leadership into high-risk situations that increase the chance of failure.

Where did the phrase originate?
– Marilyn Loden used the term during a 1978 panel; it was later popularized in media coverage of corporate advancement issues.

Bottom line

The glass ceiling describes persistent structural and cultural barriers to leadership for women and other marginalized groups. Progress has been uneven: symbolic breakthroughs matter, but sustained change requires deliberate policies, inclusive cultures, equitable promotion practices, and accountability. Removing these barriers benefits organizations ethically and strategically by widening the talent pool and improving decision-making.

Selected sources

• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
• U.S. Department of Labor (Glass Ceiling Commission)
• Ryan, M.K. & Haslam, A. “The Glass Cliff” (British Journal of Management)
• Reports on executive diversity (Fortune, BBC, Wall Street Journal)