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Ocean World

Posted on October 14, 2025 by user

Introduction — Ocean world

An ocean world is a planet or natural satellite whose hydrosphere includes substantial liquid, either at the surface—potentially inundating all continental land—or as subsurface oceans beneath an outer shell. The broader concept of a thalassogen recognizes that such oceans need not be liquid water: other fluids (for example molten rock, eutectic ammonia–water mixtures, or hydrocarbons) can form oceanic environments, so the chemistry and physical properties of extraterrestrial seas may diverge markedly from terrestrial seawater. Examples within the Solar System include lava ponds on Io, an ammonia-bearing inner ocean and surface hydrocarbon seas on Titan (the latter possibly representing a widespread class of exosea), and suspected salty subsurface oceans beneath the icy shells of Europa, Ganymede and Enceladus. Earth is dominated by liquid water at the surface—oceans cover roughly 75% of the globe—yet it is not completely globe‑encircling and remains the only known body with persistent surface liquid water; significant subsurface reservoirs (aquifers) also occur. The interdisciplinary study of oceans beyond Earth, planetary oceanography, combines geological, chemical and physical data to infer the presence, composition and dynamics of these fluids. For exoplanets, direct detection of surface liquids is generally beyond current capabilities, so atmospheric signatures such as water vapor and other indirect diagnostics are used as proxies for possible surface or near‑surface liquids. Ocean worlds are geophysically and astrobiologically important because their liquid inventories constrain planetary formation and evolution and provide environments potentially conducive to the origin and maintenance of life; recent modeling work (June 2020) suggests that ocean-bearing exoplanets may be common in the Milky Way.

In this chapter, “ocean” is reserved for occurrences of liquid H2O that are both enduring in time and extensive in space—large enough to traverse a planetary circumference—so that emphasis is placed on a continuous, planetary‑scale liquid reservoir rather than on ephemeral, localized, or minor surface accumulations. The defining attributes are therefore the liquid phase of water and a scale of continuity that effectively encircles the host body.

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An “ocean world” is applied to Solar System objects that presently contain such planetary‑scale, stable liquid‑water reservoirs either at the surface or within their interiors. This label refers to the observed or inferred existence of an ocean on a given body, independent of that body’s overall bulk composition.

By contrast, the terms “ocean planet” and “water world” are used in the exoplanet literature to denote planets whose bulk make‑up includes large water mass fractions; these labels characterize intrinsic, compositionally water‑rich worlds rather than the demonstrated presence of a globe‑spanning liquid layer. Thus the principal classificatory distinction is host versus composition: “ocean world” signals an object that hosts a present, globe‑girdling liquid H2O reservoir in the Solar System, whereas “ocean planet”/”water world” indicate planets defined by substantial water content in their overall structure.

Solar System planetary bodies

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Ocean worlds are planetary objects that contain, or are strongly inferred to contain, substantial reservoirs of subsurface liquid water. These environments are of central astrobiological interest because liquid water can support prebiotic chemistry and potentially sustain extant life. Within the Solar System they present practical targets for in situ investigation, since spacecraft can reach them directly—unlike exoplanets, which remain observationally remote.

Beyond Earth, the most robustly supported water-bearing bodies are the Galilean moons Callisto, Europa and Ganymede, Saturn’s moon Enceladus, and Titan. Europa and Enceladus are especially promising for exploration: both appear to have relatively thin ice shells and show evidence of cryovolcanic or plume activity, conditions that facilitate material exchange between a subsurface ocean and the surface or the surrounding space and thus improve the chances of detecting chemical signatures of interior processes.

A larger set of bodies are regarded as plausible ocean worlds on the basis of more limited observational indicators or interior modeling. These candidates include several mid-sized icy satellites (Ariel, Titania, Umbriel, Dione, Mimas, Miranda, Oberon), dwarf planets and minor bodies (Ceres, Pluto, Triton, Eris, Makemake), and others whose inferred internal structures permit stable liquid layers. Evidence for these cases typically rests on a single diagnostic (e.g., induced magnetic fields, geophysical anomalies, plume detections) or on theoretical reconstructions of thermal and compositional profiles.

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Enceladus exemplifies the canonical ocean‑world architecture used in interior models: an outer ice shell overlies a global or regional liquid layer, and active geology—manifest as plumes and other cryovolcanic features—provides a conduit linking internal chemistry to the surface and exosphere. Such structural and dynamical couplings are the principal reason ocean worlds are targeted for studies of habitability and potential biosignatures.

Exoplanets

Observations and concept art emphasize that water-bearing exoplanets form a continuum of sizes and compositions rather than a single archetype, ranging from small, rocky bodies with surface water to much larger, water-dominated worlds. Within this continuum a class of largely “purely oceanic” planets has been proposed as transitional objects: ice giants (Uranus/Neptune analogues) occupy an intermediate regime between gas-dominated giants and hot, rock- or lava-dominated planets.

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Several confirmed and candidate exoplanets have bulk properties consistent with substantial surface or interior water, including GJ 1214 b, Kepler-22b, Kepler-62e and -62f, members of the Kepler-11 and TRAPPIST-1 systems, and more recently TOI‑1452 b, Kepler‑138c and Kepler‑138d. Interior modelling also suggests that the massive rocky LHS 1140 b could host a deep, global ocean.

Exoplanetary oceans can differ qualitatively from Earth’s: although Earth’s surface is mostly covered by water, that water is a negligibly small fraction of its mass. On water-rich exoplanets, oceans may constitute a substantial fraction of planetary mass and reach depths producing hydrostatic pressures of many thousands of bars. Under such conditions water is forced into high‑pressure crystalline phases (e.g., ice V and related polymorphs), forming dense ice mantles that separate liquid layers from the silicate interior; these high‑pressure ices need not be as cold as familiar terrestrial ice.

Proximity to the host star further alters water states and climate. Close-in water worlds may reach conditions where liquid and vapor merge into a supercritical phase without a defined surface, fundamentally changing heat transport and surface–atmosphere coupling. Even on cooler but water-dominated planets, a thick, water‑vapor-rich atmosphere can produce a very strong greenhouse effect and radically different atmospheric structure and climate compared with Earth.

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Whether a water-rich planet presents as an ocean world rather than a warmer ice giant depends primarily on its mass and orbital distance. Planets must be small enough to avoid retaining a massive primordial hydrogen–helium envelope, or close enough to the star to have had such an envelope stripped; otherwise they behave as gas- or ice‑giant analogues rather than true, exposed ocean worlds.

Historical developments in the study of planetary oceans trace a progression from early inferences about solar-system ice to contemporary exoplanet surveys and theoretical models showing multiple pathways to liquid water. Gravitational calculations in the early twentieth century suggested that Jupiter’s moon Europa might contain abundant water; this inference was supported observationally when Gerard Kuiper identified water ice on Europa’s surface in 1957. Subsequent theoretical work showed how internal heat can maintain subsurface liquid layers: Lewis (1971) demonstrated that radiogenic decay within sufficiently massive icy bodies can provide sustained heating, a process rendered more effective by the presence of ammonia, which acts as an antifreeze by depressing water’s freezing point. Peale and Cassen (1979) later established tidal heating—mechanical dissipation driven by time-varying gravitational stresses from a primary planet—as a dominant control on satellite thermal evolution and the persistence of internal melt.

Remote sensing and in situ exploration have since accumulated strong empirical evidence for internal oceans beneath ice shells across the outer Solar System. Data from missions and observatories including Pioneer, Voyager, Galileo, Cassini–Huygens, New Horizons and the Hubble Space Telescope have documented geological activity, induced magnetic signatures, surface composition, and plume phenomena consistent with subsurface liquid reservoirs. These observations reinforced the view that insulation by ice shells, combined with internal heating, can sustain endogenic aqueous environments even at large heliocentric distances.

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Parallel advances in exoplanet discovery and theory have expanded the contexts in which liquid water might occur. The first confirmed exoplanet detections in 1992 opened a cascade of surveys revealing great diversity in planet masses, sizes and orbital architectures, including widespread evidence for radial migration within protoplanetary discs. Models by Kuchner (2003) and Léger et al. (2004) proposed that icy worlds forming beyond the snow line can migrate inward to roughly 1 AU where increased stellar flux may melt outer ices and create surface or subsurface water. The Kepler mission (launched 7 March 2009) discovered thousands of exoplanets, including on the order of fifty Earth-size bodies in or near classical habitable zones; as of 29 July 2025, 6,032 exoplanets are confirmed across 4,530 systems (989 of which are multiplanet systems). Complementary theoretical work (e.g., a June 2020 NASA modeling study) suggests that ocean-bearing exoplanets may be common in the Galaxy and need not be confined to the traditional habitable-zone definition. A recent candidate illustrating these ideas is TOI‑1452 b (announced August 2022), a nearby super‑Earth whose measured properties are consistent with a high water fraction and the potential for deep oceans.

Taken together, formation beyond the snow line, inward migration, internal radiogenic and tidal heating, and thermal insulation by ice create multiple, physically distinct pathways for the generation and maintenance of surface and subsurface liquid water. This plurality of mechanisms broadens the geophysical settings in which habitable environments might arise, both within our Solar System and around other stars.

High-resolution images of protoplanetary disks such as ALMA’s view of HL Tauri illustrate the dense, gaseous and dusty environments in which planets assemble and migrate. The chemical and physical inventory available to accreting bodies depends strongly on formation location: material condensing near the frost line is expected to be dominated by water and silicate minerals, whereas formation at greater orbital distances permits incorporation of additional volatiles — ammonia and methane as hydrates and more volatile species such as CO, N2 and CO2. Planetary building blocks originating in these outer regions therefore resemble comet‑like mixtures of roughly comparable water and rock mass fractions, producing bulk densities lower than those of predominantly rocky planets.

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If accretion proceeds while the circumstellar gas disk is still present, disk–planet torques can drive rapid orbital migration, an effect that is particularly strong for bodies in the terrestrial mass range and can relocate icy, water‑rich planets into much warmer orbits. Numerical formation models commonly reproduce such inward migration (although outward migration can occur under specific disk and planetary conditions), and the inward transport of originally icy worlds provides a straightforward pathway to produce close‑in “ocean planets” — a scenario articulated by Marc Kuchner (2003). Conversely, planets that form in hot inner disk regions are expected to be comparatively dry; thus the detection of a water‑dominated planet close to its star would be strong evidence for ex situ formation followed by migration.

Volatile partitioning during the molten, early stages of planet formation further controls ocean formation. Because water is highly soluble in magma, a substantial fraction of a planet’s initial water inventory is sequestered in the mantle during a global magma‑ocean phase. As the mantle cools and solidifies from the bottom upward, a large fraction of that stored water (estimates typically range from about 60% to 99%) can be exsolved to build a dense steam atmosphere that may later condense to form surface oceans. The emergence of a long‑lived surface ocean requires planetary differentiation and one or more persistent internal or external heat sources — for example, radioactive decay, tidal heating, or the early radiative luminosity of the parent body — to regulate cooling and volatile release.

Quantitative predictions of volatile retention, mantle storage, atmospheric composition and subsequent oceanic evolution remain uncertain because the precise initial conditions following accretion (e.g., total volatile budgets, redox state, thermal profiles and timing of disk dispersal) are not yet well constrained. These uncertainties complicate efforts to predict which migrating planets will retain significant surface water and under what circumstances steam atmospheres will condense into stable oceans.

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Determining the internal structure of icy worlds relies primarily on bulk density, gravity harmonics and shape measurements; the derived moment of inertia is especially diagnostic because a low value indicates segregation of dense rock and lighter ice into distinct layers. Inferring the moment of inertia from shape or gravity alone requires that the body be in long‑term hydrostatic equilibrium—i.e., deformable like a fluid over geological timescales—and demonstrating that equilibrium generally demands a joint analysis of both gravity and topography to separate hydrostatic from non‑hydrostatic contributions.

A range of remote and geophysical techniques are used to search for and characterise subsurface oceans: magnetic induction, precise gravity and shape (geodetic) measurements, forced- and free‑libration studies, obliquity determination, tidal response (Love numbers), radar sounding, surface compositional spectroscopy and geomorphological interpretation of surface features. Together these observables constrain whether a water layer exists, its thickness, and whether it contacts underlying rock. That contact is of high astrobiological significance because direct ocean–silicate interfaces permit hydrothermal circulation and water–rock reactions that supply chemical energy and dissolved species potentially usable by life; by contrast, larger ice‑rich bodies commonly develop high‑pressure ice layers that isolate the ocean from the rocky core, producing a “water sandwich” with ocean bounded by inner and outer ice shells.

Because pressure and temperature vary strongly with depth, H2O in planetary interiors appears in multiple physical states: vapor, liquid, supercritical fluids, superfluid-like regimes under special conditions, several crystalline high‑pressure ice polymorphs (e.g., Ice VII), and in extreme environments even ionised or plasma-like phases. The persistence of a subsurface ocean over geological time is therefore governed by the balance between internal heat production (tidal dissipation, radiogenic decay, exothermic geochemical reactions such as serpentinization) and heat loss via conduction, convection and phase change, together with the salinity and composition that set the freezing point. Tidal heating is particularly important because it both supplies internal energy and interacts dynamically with ocean and ice-shell structure, so ocean longevity and tidal dissipation are tightly coupled.

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Smaller bodies tend to have thinner atmospheres and lower gravity, conditions that favour evaporation of surface liquids; nevertheless, modelling shows that objects below one Earth mass can maintain liquid water if internal heat sources (tidal flexing, radiogenic decay, hydrothermal activity) are sufficient. In many small ocean worlds, serpentinization—exothermic alteration of ultramafic rock by water—can provide a sustained hydrothermal heat flux and chemical gradients when fluids penetrate a brittle rock layer, generating long‑lived thermal and chemical disequilibria relevant to habitability.

The fluid dynamics of global oceans beneath deforming ice shells present major theoretical challenges: ocean circulation, momentum and heat transport, tidal flow, and feedbacks with ice‑shell deformation and internal dissipation are tightly coupled and only beginning to be explored quantitatively. Cryovolcanism remains contentious because liquid water is denser than ice, making buoyant ascent mechanically unfavourable under typical conditions; nonetheless, spacecraft imaging and compositional data (Voyager 2, Galileo, Cassini, New Horizons) have revealed surface morphologies and plume phenomena on worlds such as Europa and Enceladus that are most plausibly explained by subsurface liquid activity, indicating that ocean–ice processes can produce observable surface expressions despite the density constraint.

Depth scales emphasise the diversity of ocean worlds: Earth’s mean ocean depth is about 3.7 km, whereas modelled liquid‑water envelopes on exoplanets can reach tens to hundreds of kilometres, varying with planetary mass, composition and surface conditions. For instance, a planet with a 300 K surface temperature might sustain liquid‑water layers from roughly 30 to 500 km in depth depending on its gravity and bulk composition, underlining that “ocean planets” encompass a wide range of internal architectures and behaviours.

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Atmospheric models

Retention of surface liquid water requires a combination of orbital, gravitic, and magnetic conditions: a location within the host star’s habitable zone to receive appropriate incident flux, sufficient surface gravity to maintain an atmosphere and thus surface pressure, and a magnetosphere generated by an internal dynamo to protect the upper atmosphere from stellar wind erosion over geologic time. Planetary atmospheres arise either from endogenous outgassing during assembly or from capture of nebular gas, and their mass and composition set the planet’s surface temperature by modulating radiative transfer—greenhouse gases trap stellar energy and re-radiate it in the infrared, producing spectral signatures that can be observed.

Ice-rich bodies that migrate inward can develop dense, steam-laden envelopes while retaining large volatile inventories for billions of years; even when subject to gradual hydrodynamic escape these worlds may remain volatile-rich on geological timescales. Ultraviolet irradiation controls both atmospheric chemistry and escape: UV-driven photolysis of water releases hydrogen and oxygen, and UV heating of the upper atmosphere can drive hydrodynamic outflows that remove hydrogen (and in some cases oxygen) to space. Such photolytic escape is capable of stripping substantial water reservoirs—potentially amounting to multiple Earth oceans—across a wide range of habitable-zone conditions, whether the escape is energy-limited or diffusion-limited.

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The diffusion-limited hydrogen flux depends on surface gravity, so more massive planets (with higher gravity) will generally exhibit lower hydrogen escape rates for a given atmospheric composition, which tends to increase their long-term volatile retention. During a runaway greenhouse, moist convection carries water into the stratosphere where it is vulnerable to photolysis; the resulting hydrodynamic wind can drive irreversible loss of surface water, oxidize the crust, and lead to buildup of abiotic oxygen in the atmosphere. The net volatile evolution thus reflects an interplay among stellar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) output, the duration of any runaway-greenhouse phase, the initial water endowment, and the efficiency with which liberated oxygen is sequestered by surface sinks.

Volatile-rich planets are expected to be relatively common around young stars and M-type dwarfs, where formation and environmental conditions favor large volatile inventories. A distinct subclass—so-called Hycean planets—combines global oceans with thick, hydrogen-dominated atmospheres; because molecular hydrogen has different radiative properties than heavier background gases (e.g., N2, O2), the conventional habitability boundaries shift substantially and become highly sensitive to atmospheric mass. Detailed radiative-transfer models show that very massive hydrogen envelopes can force surface boiling at 1 AU (for pressures ~10–20× Earth’s), relocating the habitable zone for such worlds outward (estimated near ~3.85 AU), whereas a Hycean planet with Earth-like surface pressure would permit surface liquid water closer in (around ~1.6 AU).

Composition models

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Clouds and atmospheric structure strongly influence both a planet’s thermal profile and the remote detectability of gases: cloud cover alters vertical temperature gradients and radiative transfer, modifies spectral line contrast, and thus complicates inferences about surface and atmospheric state from observations. For planets with large bulk water inventories, internal and surface geophysics and geochemistry differ markedly from dry, land-dominated worlds; the total water mass fraction governs surface phase (ice, liquid, vapor), interior dynamics and degassing, and the partitioning of volatiles between ocean and atmosphere.

Within the habitable zone (HZ) a water-rich planet may occupy qualitatively distinct surface regimes depending on incident stellar flux and the strength of greenhouse warming. End-member states include an ice-covered surface of low-pressure crystalline H2O (Ice I), a surface ocean beneath a temperate atmosphere, or a steam-dominated envelope above extensive surface water. Because greenhouse magnitude and insolation act together to set surface temperature, modest changes in greenhouse-gas abundance or stellar flux can drive transitions among these regimes.

Multiple interacting factors modulate atmospheric composition and climate on such worlds: ocean fraction (controlling CO2 dissolution and atmospheric relative humidity), the redox state of surface and mantle reservoirs, ocean acidity, planetary albedo, and surface gravity — each of which provides feedbacks that influence climate stability and spectral signatures. Atmospheric column mass is also a primary control on the location of HZ limits: lower-mass planets with thinner atmospheres require higher stellar fluxes to maintain a given surface temperature (shifting the effective HZ outward), whereas higher-mass, denser-atmosphere planets can remain habitable at lower fluxes (shifting the HZ inward).

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Despite these bulk-water differences, theoretical and climate-model studies suggest that the atmospheric compositions of water-dominated HZ planets need not be fundamentally different from mixed land–ocean planets, permitting many of the same modeling approaches. For radiative–chemical modeling initial conditions it is common to assume icy accretionary building blocks with a comet-like volatile inventory (dominantly H2O with smaller NH3 and CO2 fractions); a representative starting mixture used in models is ~90% H2O, ~5% NH3 and ~5% CO2. Targeted modeling of Kepler-62f, for example, indicates that CO2 partial pressures of order 1.6–5 bar (corresponding to total surface pressures ≈0.56–1.32 times Earth’s mean) are required to raise the surface above the freezing point of water, illustrating the quantitative greenhouse adjustments needed to sustain liquid surfaces.

Oceanography

Remote sensing and geophysical inference indicate active subsurface ocean circulation beneath the ice shells of Enceladus, Europa, Titan, and Ganymede, with these flows redistributing internal heat and thereby influencing ice-shell thickness and morphology. On Enceladus, spatial variations in shell thickness point to a meridional overturning in which relatively warm water rises beneath high latitudes while colder water sinks at lower latitudes, producing a poleward-directed pathway for interior heat toward the ice base. By contrast, dynamical models for Europa predict upwelling concentrated near the equator and enhanced heat delivery at low latitudes; at the global scale Europa’s ocean organizes into a set of principal circulation cells—three zonal and two equatorial—that collectively advect internal heat upward and focus convective warming toward equatorial regions.

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Titan and Ganymede are inferred to occupy a different dynamical regime: their internal oceans behave effectively like weakly rotating or non-rotating fluids, with little evidence for coherent, Coriolis-organized, planet-scale circulation cells. Heat transport on these bodies therefore appears more spatially disordered or confined to local scales rather than being dominated by large-scale zonal/equatorial patterns. These contrasting circulation architectures—polar-focused overturn on Enceladus, equatorward concentration on Europa, and the absence of organized global cells on Titan and Ganymede—imply distinct controls on thermal evolution, ice-shell thickness distributions, and possible surface expressions of internal heat, with consequences for geologic activity and potential habitability.

Astrobiology

Ocean worlds and water-rich planets serve as important geological records and as prime targets for astrobiology because their physical architectures constrain both their own evolution and the broader history of the Solar System. Habitability in these bodies requires three ingredients familiar from terrestrial life: persistent liquid water, accessible energy sources (thermal or chemical), and a supply of bioessential elements. Empirical observations and numerical models (notably summarized in August 2018) indicate that some categories of water-dominated planets could be compatible with life, but the likelihood of habitability depends sensitively on ocean-surface configuration and internal structure. Complete, global oceans limit pathways for nutrient exchange with the rocky interior, and the presence of an intervening high-pressure ice mantle can further isolate seawater from rock–water geochemistry, both of which reduce the prospects for Earth-like biospheres.

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Modeling of planets with only a few Earth oceans of water predicts acute nutrient scarcity—especially phosphorus—because, unlike Earth, continuously submerged surfaces lack continental weathering by rain that supplies these elements to the ocean. With vastly greater water inventories (e.g., tens of Earth oceans), hydrostatic pressures at the seafloor become extreme and are predicted to modify interior dynamics in ways that likely suppress long-lived plate tectonics and volcanism; the loss of these processes would eliminate key volcanic and tectonic fluxes that generate and maintain favorable redox and nutrient regimes. By contrast, small icy satellites such as Europa and Enceladus are considered relatively promising targets because their subsurface oceans are plausibly in direct contact with silicate cores, enabling rock–water reactions that deliver heat and dissolved elements to the ocean.

Surface and near-surface geological processes on icy worlds can also transport externally delivered or photochemically produced organics (for example, cometary deposits and ultraviolet-processed tholins) into subsurface oceans, enhancing organic inventories. Overall, when liquid water, long-lived energy gradients, and sufficient nutrient inputs are coupled over geological timescales, ocean worlds can potentially support simple biological activity; therefore, the long-term habitability of any given ocean world is controlled by the interplay among ocean depth, mechanisms of nutrient supply, and the planet’s interior geodynamics.

Oxygen

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Molecular oxygen in an atmosphere is not an unequivocal indicator of life because it can accumulate through abiotic geophysical processes as well as through biological photosynthesis. Moreover, very high atmospheric O2 levels can be inimical to the origin of life: early prebiotic chemistry and nascent metabolisms depended on redox disequilibria provided by reduced, hydrogen-bearing species, which served as electron donors and energy sources for primitive biochemical pathways. As a strong oxidant, abundant O2 would scavenge those reduced compounds and diminish the available free energy, thereby undermining the chemical gradients essential for abiogenesis and early microbial energetics. Consequently, evaluations of planetary habitability and biosignature claims must account for the broader redox environment and plausible abiotic oxygen-producing mechanisms rather than treating elevated O2 alone as definitive evidence of biological activity.

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