Working Class

Working class

The working class broadly describes people who earn wages through work that often does not require a college degree and frequently involves physical or routine tasks. Definitions vary by discipline and culture, but the term typically contrasts with those who derive income from ownership or managerial control.

Key takeaways

• Working class generally refers to wage earners in lower-paid, manual, or routine service jobs; a college degree is often not required.
• Most contemporary working class jobs are in the service sector: clerical, retail, food service, low-skill manual labor, and entry-level white-collar positions.
• The meaning of “working class” varies—economists, sociologists, and political traditions emphasize different criteria (education, income, occupation, or relationship to ownership).

Definitions and perspectives

• Economic: In some U.S. economic discussions, “working class” is used for adults without a college degree and overlaps with segments of the middle class.
• Sociological: Classic class analyses place the working class among the largest social groups, often defined by occupation and income percentiles (for example, those between roughly the 25th and 55th income percentiles).
• Marxist/socialist: Emphasizes the relationship to production—people who sell their labor because they do not own the means of production (the “proletariat”).

Types of working-class jobs today

The composition of working-class employment has changed since the mid-20th century. Industrial and factory jobs have declined; service-sector roles dominate:

• Clerical and administrative support
• Retail sales and customer service
• Food preparation and hospitality
• Low-skill manual labor and maintenance
• Entry- or low-level white-collar positions

Many of these jobs pay relatively low hourly wages (often under $15/hour in the U.S.) and may lack employer-sponsored health benefits.

Pay, benefits, and demographics

• Earnings and security vary widely within the working class: some trades and skilled manual roles (e.g., boilermakers, nuclear plant operators) can pay well, while many service jobs leave workers living paycheck to paycheck.
• The U.S. working-class population has become more racially and ethnically diverse over time. White Americans make up a smaller share than in the mid-20th century, while Black and Hispanic Americans account for a larger share.

Historical note: Europe

In pre-industrial and feudal Europe, a broad laboring class included a range of occupations (artisans, peasants, tradespeople) distinct from aristocracy and clergy. Industrialization and the later growth of service economies reshaped class structures and occupational composition.

How people identify and how class is measured

Surveys show differing self-identification: a substantial share of people describe themselves as working class, lower class, or middle class depending on question phrasing and personal circumstances. Income-based measures (adjusted for household size and local cost of living) are commonly used to classify lower-, middle-, and upper-income households; online calculators based on such methods can help individuals estimate where they fall.

Conclusion

“Working class” is a flexible term capturing a large and diverse group of wage earners whose work often does not require a college degree and who may face limited pay and benefits. Its precise meaning depends on whether the emphasis is on occupation, income, education, or the economic relationship to ownership and production.