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Introduction Polygamy — the custom or practice of a person having more than one spouse at the same time — occupies an outsized place in Indian private law because it sits at the intersection of criminal law, personal law, constitutional freedoms and family remedies. For litigators and family lawyers the question is seldom theoretical: is…

Introduction Pollution dilution describes the physical process by which pollutants discharged into air or water are mixed with a larger volume of the ambient medium, reducing pollutant concentration at a given point. In environmental law and regulation, the concept is frequently invoked by industry and regulators when assessing compliance with emission/discharge limits, assimilative capacity of…

Introduction The “Polluter Pays” principle is a cornerstone of contemporary environmental law in India. At its essence, it holds that the person or entity whose activities cause pollution or environmental degradation must bear the cost of remedying the harm and preventing further damage. Far from being merely theoretical, it is an operative rule used by…

Introduction Polling station (commonly called polling booth) is the physical locus where electors assigned to a polling area exercise the franchise on the day of poll. It is the single most sensitive node in the electoral chain: the integrity of an election is frequently won or lost at the polling station. For practitioners, mastery over…

Introduction Police Diary (often called the “case diary” or “station diary/roznamcha” depending on local practice) is the principal contemporaneous record of police investigation. Kept by the investigating officer (IO) and by the station at large, it records time-stamped events, visits, steps taken, statements received, seizures, searches and other investigative acts. In Indian criminal practice the…

Introduction Police custody is the immediate physical custody of an accused by the police for the purposes of investigation and interrogation. In the Indian criminal process it is the most sensitive phase: it is where coercive investigative tools meet the fundamental rights of the citizen. For practitioners, mastery of the law on police custody is…

Introduction The Police Control Room (PCR) is the nerve-centre of everyday policing — the public’s first point of contact for emergencies (historically via “100”, now integrated in many places with “112”/ERSS), the node that receives information, mobilises resources, and logs operational acts such as dispatches and arrests. For practitioners, the PCR is more than an…

Introduction “Place of safety” is a technical and operational concept at the heart of the juvenile justice system in India. It marks the legal and practical boundary between criminal custody under adult law enforcement and the child‑centric, rehabilitative regime mandated for children alleged or found to be in conflict with the law. Proper application of…

Introduction Pillion rider — the person seated behind the driver on a two‑wheeler — is a deceptively simple factual category that carries multiple legal consequences in Indian practice. It determines traffic compliance obligations (helmets, seating, number of passengers), enforcement liability, insurance entitlement, and often plays a decisive evidentiary role in criminal investigations (identification, possession of…

Introduction Physical abuse — the deliberate infliction, threat or attempt to inflict bodily harm — is a core concept that crosses criminal, civil and family law domains in India. Although not a standalone statutory offence with a single definition, “physical abuse” is the factual matrix that gives rise to numerous offences and remedies: from criminal…

Introduction Photoshop (colloquially used to mean any digital image or video editing) is no longer merely a creative tool — it is a frequent object and instrument of litigation across criminal, civil, electoral and IP domains in India. Whether a photograph is “morphed” to defame a person, an image is edited to fabricate a document,…

Introduction Phenanthrene alkaloids — principally morphine, codeine and thebaine — are natural opiate alkaloids derived from the opium poppy. In law they are not discussed as a chemical taxonomy but as controlled substances with severe regulatory and criminal consequences. For Indian lawyers who handle criminal defence, prosecution, regulatory compliance, import/export or healthcare litigation, understanding how…

Introduction “Person with inter‑sex variations” denotes an individual born with biological sex characteristics — chromosomal patterns, gonads, sex hormones, or genital anatomy — that do not fit typical binary definitions of “male” or “female.” In the Indian legal landscape, recognition of intersex variations is critical because it intersects fundamental rights (equality, dignity, bodily autonomy), medical…

Introduction “Person with disability” is not merely a descriptive tag in Indian law; it is the legal threshold that activates a bundle of constitutional guarantees, statutory entitlements and procedural accommodations. Identification as a “person with disability” determines access to inclusive education, employment reservation, disability pensions, healthcare entitlements, reasonable accommodation and protection against discrimination. For litigators,…

Introduction Person of Indian Origin (PIO) historically described a class of foreign nationals with Indian lineage or past Indian citizenship. The concept has been central to India’s diasporic policy — balancing facilitation of ties with the Indian diaspora against the legal boundary between citizenship and foreign nationality. Although the separate “PIO card” scheme has been…

Introduction Persistent vegetative state (PVS) describes a clinical condition in which a person retains spontaneous autonomic functions (sleep–wake cycles, respiration, circulation) but lacks any detectable awareness of self or environment. In India this medical condition sits at the intersection of constitutional rights (notably Article 21), criminal liability (how withdrawal or withholding of life‑sustaining treatment is…

Introduction The terms “payee” and “holder of a cheque” are deceptively simple in everyday parlance but carry precise legal consequences under Indian law. Whether the transaction is pursued as a criminal complaint for dishonour under Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 (the NI Act) or as a civil recovery action, the status of…

Introduction A patent is not merely a statutory right; in India it is a commercial and litigation-centred instrument that converts technical ingenuity into exclusive market power for a limited period. For counsel advising corporate clients, R&D teams, start-ups or universities, mastery of the substantive patent law, procedural pathways at the Patent Office, and the practical…

Introduction “Pandemic” is not merely a medical descriptor; in the Indian legal context it is a trigger for a cluster of statutory powers, individual rights claims and commercial consequences. Although no single domestic statute defines “pandemic” in precise epidemiological terms, the arrival of a pandemic activates public health statutes (primarily the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897),…

Introduction Oxygen saturation — commonly expressed as SpO2 (peripheral oxygen saturation) — is an objective physiological parameter that measures the percentage of haemoglobin binding sites occupied by oxygen. In clinical practice it is a frontline metric used to assess respiratory status and guide urgent lifesaving interventions (supplemental oxygen, NIV, intubation, transfer to ICU). In medico-legal…

Introduction An overdraft account is a ubiquitous banking facility: it permits a customer to withdraw funds beyond the available balance up to a sanctioned limit. In commercial practice in India overdrafts (OD) and cash‑credit (CC) facilities are essential working‑capital tools. But an overdraft is not merely a convenience — it is a continuing credit relationship…

Introduction Outraging modesty is a short statutory phrase with wide practical consequences. In Indian criminal law it denotes targeted physical contact, words or gestures directed at a woman that are sufficiently indecent or humiliating to offend her sense of decency. The concept appears across the Indian Penal Code and in the case-law and statutory architecture…

Introduction Ordinary resident is a deceptively simple phrase that recurs across Indian statutes — most prominently in taxation and electoral law — but its legal effect varies sharply with context. For practitioners, the concept is pivotal: it determines tax liability, voter registration and entitlement to service/postal voting, citizenship and certain social welfare entitlements. The core…

Introduction An “order” is one of the most frequently encountered instruments in civil litigation. Though conceptually simple — a formal expression of a court’s decision which is not a decree — its practical consequences are large: orders determine interim relief, interlocutory rights, procedure, costs, the course of execution, and often the availability and scope of…

Introduction Opium is not merely a botanical product; in the Indian legal order it is a controlled substance whose possession, cultivation, manufacture, transport and sale attract special statutory regulation and penal consequences. For practitioners in criminal law, regulatory law, or litigation arising from rural cultivation or organised trafficking, “opium” triggers the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic…

Introduction “Open shelter” is a short‑term, minimally restrictive facility established by State Governments (or their agencies) to provide immediate refuge, basic services and linkage to longer‑term care for children and women who are homeless, trafficked, rescued from exploitative situations or in need of immediate protection. In the Indian statutory landscape the term carries practical importance…

Introduction An ombudsman is a neutral redressal official or office that investigates complaints by citizens or customers against public authorities, regulated entities or private service‑providers. In India the ombudsman is not a single institution: the concept has been statutorily and regulatorily embodied across sectors (banking, insurance, pensions, public administration, etc.) and in anti‑corruption bodies (Lokpal/Lokayukta)….

Introduction The term “occupier” is deceptively simple but legally potent. It operates as a nexus between statutory duties, civil liability in tort, and criminal responsibility under specialised statutes in India. For practitioners, correct identification and pleading of the “occupier” can be decisive in matters ranging from workplace safety and factory regulation to public health, municipal…

Introduction An “Observation Home” is a statutorily contemplated institution at the very first interface between a child alleged to be in conflict with law and the juvenile justice system. It is not a mere detention cell: it is the temporary reception point for immediate care, assessment, protection of rights, and preliminary rehabilitation-oriented measures pending inquiry…

Introduction OB-GYN, shorthand for Obstetrics and Gynaecology, denotes the medical specialty that addresses pregnancy, childbirth and the health of the female reproductive system. For Indian legal practitioners, OB-GYN is not merely a clinical label: it sits at the centre of high-stakes medico-legal disputes—medical negligence claims, criminal prosecutions (including under the PCPNDT and IPC), disputes over…

Introduction Nyaya Panchayats (often spelled Nyaaya Panchayats) denote institutions of village-level dispute resolution intended to bring justice closer to rural communities. While popularly associated with informal panchayat adjudication, in the contemporary Indian legal landscape the concept bifurcates into (a) statutory village courts created by State Panchayati Raj legislation (termed “Nyaya Panchayats” in some States) and…

Introduction Notice of Appearance is a statutory instrument used by the police to secure a person’s attendance for questioning without resorting to arrest. Introduced to curb arbitrary arrests and to preserve liberty where custodial action is unnecessary, the notice performs a vital gate‑keeping function in criminal procedure: it balances investigative needs with fundamental rights. For…

Introduction The expression “North East” (or “the North‑Eastern Region”) is not merely a geographic label in Indian law; it denotes a distinct bundle of constitutional, statutory and administrative regimes that govern governance, land, resource rights, security and development in the region. For practitioners, appreciating the legal singularities of the North‑East is essential because rules that…

Introduction “Non-Resident Indian” (NRI) is not a mere descriptive phrase — it is a legal status that triggers an array of distinct rules across taxation, foreign exchange, property law and procedural law in India. For a practitioner, correctly characterising a client as an NRI (or not) is often the first, decisive issue that determines tax…

Introduction Non‑ECR (commonly written ECNR — Emigration Check Not Required) is the passport endorsement that exempts an Indian national from obtaining emigration clearance from the Protector of Emigrants (PoE) before departing India for employment in certain foreign countries. In practical terms, a Non‑ECR passport frees the holder from the procedural requirement of obtaining an Emigration…