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Conviction Introduction A conviction is the formal judicial determination that an accused is guilty of an offence. In the Indian criminal justice system it is the pivot on which punishment, collateral consequences (disqualification, stigma, forfeiture) and appellate remedies turn. For practitioners, the concept of conviction is not merely definitional — it governs trial strategy (how…

Introduction Contempt of court is the legal mechanism by which courts enforce their authority, protect the integrity of judicial processes and ensure compliance with their orders. In India it occupies a singular position at the intersection of judicial power, individual liberty and freedom of speech. For litigators and judges alike, mastery of the doctrine is…

Introduction “Contempt” in the Indian legal sense is a technical doctrine wholly distinct from its everyday meaning of dislike or disrespect. It is a procedural and substantive tool by which the judiciary protects the integrity, authority and functioning of the courts and the administration of justice. For practitioners, contempt law sits at the intersection of…

Introduction Contact tracing — the systematic identification, listing and follow-up of persons who have been exposed to an infected person — is not merely an epidemiological tool. In India it sits at the intersection of public health policy, administrative power, criminal liability and individual constitutional rights. The practice—whether conducted by public health teams using interviews…

Introduction Consummation — commonly described in lay terms as the completion of a marriage by sexual intercourse — is a short word with outsized consequences in Indian matrimonial practice. Though often treated as a private, intimate act, its legal significance appears in annulment petitions, legitimacy questions, matrimonial reliefs and the evidentiary calculus of family disputes….

Introduction The term “Consumer Court” in India is shorthand for the quasi‑judicial fora constituted under the Consumer Protection Act to adjudicate disputes arising out of the sale of goods and provision of services. These fora — commonly described as District Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions (District Commissions), State Commissions and the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission…

Introduction Consanguinity — the legal recognition of “blood relationship” — is not an archaism in Indian law. It is a live, determinative concept across matrimonial law, adoption, succession and administrative processes (for example, marriage-registration objections). For practitioners, an accurate appreciation of consanguinity (often litigated as “sapinda” relationship or as a “prohibited relationship”) is frequently decisive:…

Introduction A congenital disorder (often called a birth defect) is a medical condition present at or before birth that may have structural, functional, metabolic, or genetic causes. In Indian law, the term is more than medical nomenclature: it sits at the intersection of medical negligence, reproductive rights, public health regulation (notably prenatal diagnostic regulation), disability…

Introduction Conciliation is an institutionalised form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) in which the parties, with the assistance of an impartial third person (the conciliator), seek a consensual settlement of their dispute. Unlike arbitration, conciliation does not culminate in a binding determination imposed by the third person; instead, it produces a negotiated settlement that the…

Introduction Conceptus — the legal-medical term denoting any product of conception at any stage of development from fertilisation until birth — is a small phrase with large legal consequences. It sits at the intersection of criminal law (offences against gestation), reproductive and health law (termination, consent, medical regulation), tort (iatrogenic injury to the fetus), family…

Introduction Compensation is the legal mechanism by which a person wronged by another is monetarily made whole (in whole or in part) for loss, injury or deprivation caused by the wrongful act, breach or omission of the other. In India, compensation operates across multiple branches — contract, tort, statutory regimes (motor accidents, labour, consumer law),…

Introduction “Communication device” in contemporary Indian law is not merely a dictionary phrase: it is the single most consequential locus where constitutional rights (privacy, speech, fair trial), criminal investigation, regulatory control and commercial litigation intersect. From a seized smartphone that contains the only record of a crime, to metadata held by telcos and intermediaries, to…

Introduction Communal violence — violence between or targeted at groups identified by religion, ethnicity, language or similar communal markers — is not merely a law-and-order phrase. It implicates criminal law, constitutional federalism (public order and police being state subjects), human rights, evidence law, criminal procedure and disaster management. For practitioners, communal violence cases are complex:…

Introduction Common intention is a foundational device in the criminal law of India that converts joint action into joint liability. Appearing in Section 34 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), it is the mechanism by which each participant in a jointly executed criminal act is treated, for purposes of guilt, as if he or she…

Introduction Commissioned officer is a technical and jurisprudentially significant term in Indian military and administrative law. In practice it denotes those members of the Indian Armed Forces who hold a commission — a formal instrument conferring authority, seniority and command — and who, in many contexts, correspond to the “Gazetted Officer” tier of the civil…

Introduction Cohabitation — commonly described as two persons living together in the same house — has acquired outsized legal significance in India over the last two decades. What began as a social phenomenon is now a recurring issue in family law, criminal law practice, public law (privacy/choice) and statutory domestic-violence litigation. For practitioners, the focal…

Cognizance Introduction “Cognizance” is a short word that marks a long procedural threshold in criminal justice: the moment a judicial forum accepts that sufficient material exists to treat an allegation as a matter for criminal adjudication. In Indian practice, the decision to take cognizance transforms private grievance or police information into formal court proceedings. For…

Introduction A “cognizable offence” is a foundational classification in Indian criminal procedure: it determines whether the police can initiate investigation and arrest without prior judicial permission. This dichotomy—cognizable versus non‑cognizable—shapes immediate policing response, the victim’s right to an FIR, an accused person’s exposure to police custody, and the tactical choices available to litigators. Mastery of…

Introduction Coercion is a central concept in Indian contract law because it strikes at the very foundation of contractual obligation — free consent. Contracts induced by coercion are not contracts in the true sense: the coerced party’s assent is vitiated and the law affords remedies short of enforcement. For practitioners the practical question is seldom…

Introduction A codicil is a testamentary instrument that supplements, explains, modifies or, to a limited extent, revokes parts of an earlier will. In Indian practice codicils are commonly used where a testator wishes to make a change to an existing will without executing a completely new testamentary instrument. For practitioners, understanding the formal requirements, the…

Introduction Coca leaf — the harvested leaf of plants of the Erythroxylum genus — occupies a small but legally sensitive place in Indian narcotics law. Though the leaf itself is not the same as the purified alkaloid cocaine, it is specifically regulated because it is the raw botanical source for ecgonine, cocaine and other derivatives….

Introduction Clinical trial — the controlled, systematic study of a new drug, device or intervention on human participants — sits at the intersection of science, regulation and patient rights. In India, clinical trials are closely regulated because they involve human subjects, potentially significant risks, commercial interests and public health consequences. For litigators, regulators, trial sponsors,…

Introduction A clearing house is the institutional mechanism through which negotiable instruments (principally cheques and bank drafts) are presented, processed, reconciled and finally settled between banks. In India, clearing houses (whether bank-run regional clearing, automated MICR clearing, or the modern Cheque Truncation System (CTS)) form the frontline infrastructure that converts paper instruments into enforceable claims…

Introduction Classified Service Voters (CSVs) are a discrete but consequential category within India’s electoral mechanism. They are service voters — members of the armed forces and certain other uniformed services governed by the Army Act, 1950 (and corresponding Acts for the Navy and Air Force) — who, instead of voting by postal ballot themselves, lawfully…

Introduction Civil contempt is a remedial process aimed at securing obedience to judicial orders, decrees and undertakings. In Indian practice it is the tool the courts use when ordinary execution procedures are inadequate or have been deliberately flouted. For practitioners, civil contempt is less about moral blame than about compulsion: the court’s primary object is…

Introduction A “Circle Office” in the context of ration cards is not a term of art in statute but an entrenched administrative reality: it is the local field office of a State/Union Territory Food & Civil Supplies department (or equivalent agency) entrusted with the day‑to‑day management of the Public Distribution System (PDS) at a sub‑district…

Introduction The term “cigarette” appears simple in ordinary speech but has multiple legal consequences in India — regulatory, fiscal and penal. Whether a product is classified as a “cigarette” rather than a beedi, cigar or other tobacco product determines which regulatory regime, taxation schedule and compliance obligations apply, and it affects prosecutorial strategy under public‑health…

Introduction “Chowky” is the colloquial Indian term for a police outpost or sub-station — the smallest public-facing unit of the police establishment that services a limited locality, rural belt or industrial area. Though not a technical statutory term, chowkies are integral to everyday policing: they are the first point of contact for citizens reporting crimes,…

Introduction “Child in conflict with law” is a legal category that marks the point where childhood and criminal law intersect. It denotes a person below eighteen years of age who is alleged to have committed an offence. In India this concept is not an imprimatur for punitive adult-style trial; it triggers a distinct, welfare‑oriented process—balancing…

Introduction Child marriage remains a persistent social and legal problem in India with immediate and long-term consequences for health, education, autonomy and fundamental rights. Legally, the phenomenon is regulated primarily by the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 (PCMA) but it engages multiple branches of law — criminal law, family law, juvenile/child welfare law and…

Introduction A precise understanding of who is a “child” is foundational across Indian law: criminal liability, protective welfare measures, family disputes, education, labour regulation and inheritance all turn on age. Unlike a single universal definition, Indian law adopts multiple, context-specific definitions calibrated to policy goals—protection, rehabilitation, capacity and consent. Mastery of these statutory definitions, evidentiary…

Introduction The Chief Electoral Officer (CEO) of a State or Union Territory is the Election Commission of India’s principal functionary inside the State for all matters relating to electoral rolls and the conduct of elections to Parliament and the State Legislature. Practically, the CEO is the operational and supervisory nerve-centre through which policy, procedure and…

Introduction A chargesheet is the police’s formal investigative report submitted to a Magistrate when an investigation is complete. In everyday criminal practice in India it is the document that converts police inquiry into judicial proceedings: it identifies the accused, states the offences alleged, sets out the witnesses and material collected, and invites the court to…

Introduction Charas is a form of cannabis resin — an organic extract obtained from the cannabis plant — and is one of the primary narcotic products encountered in criminal practice in India. Although superficially a botanical term, the legal treatment of charas under Indian law is highly technical: its legal classification, the consequences of possession,…

Introduction Challan is one of those deceptively simple words in Indian legal parlance whose meaning and consequences vary sharply with context. In everyday speech it denotes a notice of a traffic offence, but in criminal practice it is used interchangeably with “chargesheet” — the police report submitted to a magistrate under the Code of Criminal…